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格式合同价值之研究/吴元国

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格式合同价值之研究

哈尔滨商业大学法学院 吴元国

【摘要】:
格式合同的产生和发展是20世纪合同法发展的主要标志之一。随着我国社会主义市场经济的迅速发展,特别是加入WTO后,格式合同以其自身的价值与特征,被应用于社会经济的各个领域,促进了社会主义市场经济的繁荣与发展 ,但它也给经济的发展带来了些许付面影响,本文从格式合同的发展过程及法律特点出发,结合我国与外国关于格式合同的立法实践,重点探讨了其价值与不足,并提出了自己的见解,以期能够对解决此类问题略进绵薄之力。

【关键词】:格式合同 格式条款 预先拟订 价值 规范


格式合同的产生和发展是20世纪合同法发展的主要标志之一,19世纪中期以来,伴随着科技的飞速发展,社会经济出现了迅速腾飞,特别是消费领域和公用事业更是一日千里。于是作为日常贸易法律表现形式的格式合同广泛的出现在了社会经济生活中。在目前普通人订立的合同总数中,格式合同的数量大约占95%以上。一位西方学者甚至认为格式合同占现代市场经济发达国家所欠数量的99%,成为当今主要的合同形式,有学者称“我们生活在格式合同的世界里”。格式合同的广泛应用,不可避免的出现了一系列法律和实际问题。如其与民法、合同法的基本原则向左,成为商家垄断的工具,损害消费者权益。

一、合同的概念
格式合同(standard form contract)或称为附和合同(addesion contract)定式合同、附从合同、标准合同、定型化契约。
在法国称为附合合同,德国称之为一般契约条款或者普通契约条款,葡萄牙法、澳门法称之为加入合同,英美称之为标准合同。台湾地区称之为定性化契约。
在我国格式合同也非共同接受的名称,有的学者称之为标准合同 ,有称之为附从合同者,定式合同者。《中华人民共和国消费者权益保护法》将其称之为格式合同,《合同法》第39条“格式条款是当事人为重复使用而预先拟订并在订立合同时未与对方协商的条款”。合同法称之为格式条款。也有学者定义为“一方当事人或者政府部门,社会团体预先拟订条款或印制成固定格式以供使用的条款”。
二、格式合同的产生与发展
经济的发展推动着社会各个领域的进步,格式合同的出现有其深刻的经济原因和社会背景,在简单的商品交换时代,由于商品交换很难形成规模交易,交易合同的订立均需要当事人的具体协商。自由资本主义节段,资本主义生产方式确立,社会科技与生产力得到飞速发展,社会商品与生产资料得到一定的丰富,格式合同的产生有了物质基础。其后,“合同自由”成为合同赖以建立的理论基础。表现在法律上便是注重当事人意思一致的内容。而轻视意思表示的形式。合同自由被认为是神圣不可侵犯的权利。合同法上注重规范赋予当事人自由订立合同不可排除法律的适用,诺成合同、非要式合同就得到飞速的发展,在《法国民法典》1134条第一款规定“依法成立的契约,在缔结契约的当事人间有相当法律的效力。”在垄断阶段随着资本主义商品经济的高速发展,垄断性大企业的形成与发展,以及公用事业的私营化,19世纪保险业与铁路运输业开始出现了格式合同。20世纪20年代后公用事业广泛的采用格式合同。40年代后,在商业领域盛行,代了近代我们已经生活在格式合同中了。
随着计算机技术的发展与广泛应用,网络时代、电子商务的到来,一些网络公司纷纷使用拆封合同,(shrink-wrap contract)和点击合同(click-warp contract),在西方发达国家,合同总数的99%为格式合同。格式合同本身使用简捷,省时,经济,体现了经济生活高速效、低耗费的特点与交易高速度的要求,这是格式合同产生的直接原因,台湾民法学者黄越钦先生认为,格式合同之所以日益普遍,主要有三种社会动机:(一)法律行为产生或缔约行为的强制性倾向(三)缔约、履行大量的发生于不断的重复。(三)以大量生产消费为内容的现代生活关系,使得企业与顾客均希望能够简化缔约的程序。
另外,垄断的出现、市场经济的高速发展,社会生产力得到极大的提高是格式合同产生的重要原因,垄断者用自己强大的经济实力和优势地位,谋去不公平利益,格式合同成为一种他们手中掌握的最好不过的工具。
由此,我们可以看出商品经济的高速发展,交易内容的重复性以及社会对交易简洁、省时高效的要求,导致了格式合同的泛滥。
三、格式合同的法律特征
尽管各国对格式合同的称谓不一,但这并不能对我们正确理解这类合同造成很大的影响,其实他内在的本质与法律特征是大同小异的,一般说来主要有以下几个特点:
1、格式合同的有关条款全部或部分的由当事人一方预先拟订,具有预先制定性和单方决定性。这一点是不同于一般合同是由双方当事人共同协商拟订的。
格式合同的拟订在法律实践中有三种情况:(一)是由合同当事人即在经济实力上占有明显优势的企业或集团单方制定。(二)作为企业或企业集团与作为交易对象的顾客共同参与制定。(三)由不属于交易当事人中任何一方的第三人、具有专门知识或法律赋予的权力就特定交易而拟订。第一种情况采用的最为普遍。
2、格式合同具有不可修改性、稳定性、重复性。
格式合同条款一经拟订,在相当长的时期内具有稳定性,不能随意修改,欲与之缔结合同的当事人只有完全同意才能成为缔结的一方当事人,不能就合同条款讨价还价。当事人在主动自愿表示订立格式合同的意思表示时,视为已完全同意了格式合同中的全部内容条款。
3、格式合同的要约具有广泛性、持续性、细节性、承诺方的不特定性。
广泛性是指,合同要约总是向不特定的多数人发出的,而非针对某一特定对象,格式合同内容为供多数契约之用的本质。持续性是指要约总在较长时间内发生效力,在合同制定者改变其经营策略以前该要约都可以作为承诺的对象。细节性就是指该要约一般包括了合同的全部条款,无须也不允许对方承诺是对要约加以任何修改。
4、格式合同内容具有规范性,完备和定型化的特点。
(一)格式合同的条款一般是经过较长时间反复运用与实践后总结出的,具有客观性和科学性。(二)格式合同的订立针对的不是特定人,而是欲与预先拟订合同方定约的不特定的所有人。(三)格式合同的订立接受合同法规的规范,有一些是专门部门或具有专门知识的人员或组织行业机构制定的,具有一定的科学性,能够正确反映所涉行业的客观规律与特殊要求。
5、在格式合同的拟订中使用人占有决定的经济、政策、行政、市场规模优势、身份优势,相对人处于弱势。地位上存在着不公平。
使用人利用在经济或其它方面的绝对优势地位,使其可以将预定的格式条款强加于对方,从而排除双方协商的可能性。表现在法律和事实上的垄断。法律上的垄断是指根据法律规定而对特殊行业或领域享有独占经营权。诸如天然气,水,电,保险,邮政,海上运输,等行业的垄断经营,他们根据法律规定而享有垄断经营权,几乎没有竞争对手,事实上的垄断地位指一方依据经济实力等条件而在事实上形成的垄断性经营地位。如银行、保险、远洋运输等行业。当事人的这种垄断地位常常被称为“契约环境的不公正”。
6、格式合同的以书面明示为原则。格式合同多是由提供商品或劳务的一方印制成书面的形式以便使用和当事人了解。
在实践中并非能够排除非书面形式的格式合同,但有一些学者认为美容美发合同就是一例。也有学者认为以美容美发合同来表明格式合同不以书面明示为限的事实是欠缺说明力的,在实际生活中,特别是在一些不是很正规或上档次的美容美发店中进行消费是可以进行讨价还价的,以至最后形成一致协议。所以美容美发合同在这方面法律证明力不足。
7、格式合同在应用上具有反复使用性的特点。
我们从格式合同的概念中不难看出,格式合同是为了反复使用而预先拟订的。正是反复使用的这一特点才需要我们预先拟订出来,否则预先拟订出来也就失去了它的意义。
有一些学者认为“反复使用”不能作为格式合同单独的特征存在,原因是有的格式条款仅使用一次,并没有被重复使用,而有的经过双方当事人自由协商的普通合同条款,反而重复使用多次。但笔者个人认为在实践中我们并不排除上述情况的存在,马克思唯物主义认为万物都有它的普遍性和特殊性,我们不能拿其特殊性来掩盖他的普遍性,有的格式条款仅仅使用一次,这种情况毕竟是少数,是特例,在日常经济生活中格式条款广泛的应用与普遍存在是不争的事实,我们仍然不能排除格式合同的重复性这一特征。
四、格式合同价值分析
(一)格式合同价值之优异性。
格式合同以其高效快捷的缔约优势,逐渐代替普通民事合同而成为现代经济生活中最主要的合同形式。随着经济的发展,格式合同的作为经济交易手段的重要性将更加明显,作用也必将更加突出。
第一、降低缔约成本,提高交易活动的效益,节省交易时间这一点体现了格式合同的交易价值。
随着市场经济的发展,各行各业都在追求效率,力争以最少的投入取得最大的利润,现代的商业环境中交易高速的进行,特别是在交易频繁的商品、服务、运输行业,不可能与个别的消费者逐一订立合同。格式合同内容上的格式化,特定性精简了缔约的程序,适应了现代商业发展的要求。
第二、格式合同可以维护交易安全,预先分化风险,预测潜在的法律责任,将风险转移给第三人。这是格式合同的安全价值。
现代市场交易活动中,随着高新技术在生产和生活经济各个领域的广泛应用,格式合同当事人不可能对未来作出完全的预测,不确定或偶发事件,激烈市场竞争、内在变化的市场行情,以及各种促销手段及宣传媒介往往缺乏诚信与职业道德,经济生活的健康安全发展需要选择一种相对安全的合同形式以保障交易的安全性。格式合同本身具有的安全价值, 预先性、确定性、稳定性的特点,适应了市场交易的需要,保障了交易的安全性。笔者认为有以下几种原因:
(1)、格式合同由要约单方精心制定,可以充分考虑合同的各种情况,吸收成熟的合同经验,格式条款的制定是由专业人员或组织该专业的专家从事该行业经验丰富的人员制定,具有预见性、稳定性减少了“陷阱合同”。甚至蒙蔽和欺诈,为企业保驾护航。
(2)、格式合同以书面形式明示,权利和义务明确。
个体条款金国反复实践运用,使企业合理的规划生产和经营适应市场的需求,避免了“偶发事件”的影响。
(3)、合同条款具有专业性、职业性最大限度的分化风险,因此,他能够限制风险范围,尽可能的减少当事人的责任与损失。
第三、对于不特定当事人具有公平的价值,在现代商品交易与交换合同中,公平是一个最基本的原则,倡导公平与谴责不公是法律的价值所在。
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TRANSFER OF BUSINESSES (PROTECTION OF CREDITORS) ORDINANCE ——附加英文版

Hong Kong


TRANSFER OF BUSINESSES (PROTECTION OF CREDITORS) ORDINANCE
 (CHAPTER 49)
 Whole document:
  
  rotect creditors on the transfer of businesses, to provide 
for the
  ility of transferees of business, the manner in which such 
liability
  be avoided and for matters incidental thereto and connected
therewith,
  to repeal the Fraudulent Transfers of Businesses Ordinance.
  June 1980]
 1. Short title
  
  Ordinance may be cited as the Transfer of Businesses (Protection 
of
  itors) Ordinance.
 2. Interpretation
  
  In this Ordinance, unless the context otherwise requires--
  eal" includes a motion for a new trial or to set aside a 
verdict,
  ing or judgment;
  iness" means a business, or any part thereof, consisting of a
trade or
  pation (other than a profession) whether or not it is carried on 
with
  ew to profit; "charge" means--
  a debenture within the meaning of the Companies Ordinance (Cap.
32);
  a mortgage;
  a bill of sale;
  a lien; or
  any document,
  r or pursuant to which a business or any assets thereof are charged
as
  rity for the payment of money or the performance of an obligation,
and
  udes an equitable charge;
  rge-holder" means a person who, under or pursuant to a charge,
and for
  purpose of enforcing payment of any money or for the 
performance of
  obligation, may sell any business;
  e of transfer" means the date on which a transfer takes effect 
or is
  nded to take effect;
  ice of transfer" means a notice of transfer in accordance with
section
  registered charge" means a charge which is registered under--
  the Land Registration Ordinance (Cap. 128);
  the Companies Ordinance (Cap. 32);
  the Bills of Sale Ordinance (Cap. 20); or
  any other enactment;
  nsfer" means the transfer or sale of a business, but does not
include-
  the sale of the stock-in-trade of a business in the ordinary
course of
  trade;
  the creation of a charge;
  the transfer of land or any share or interest therein; or
  the transfer of a vessel (or the transfer of any interest or 
share
  ein), other than--
  a vessel to which Part IV of the Shipping and Port Control 
Ordinance
  . 313) applies; or
  a trawler to which Part XII of the Merchant Shipping Ordinance 
(Cap.
  applies; "transferee" means the person to whom a 
business is
  sferred by a transferor; "transferor" means--
  in the case of the sale of a business under or pursuant to a 
charge,
  person whose business has been or is intended to be sold;
  in every other case, the person by whom or on whose 
behalf the
  sfer has been or is intended to be made.
  For the purposes of this Ordinance "transferor" and 
"transferee"
  ectively include a sub-transferor and a sub-transferee.
 3. Transferee of business to be liable for liabilities of trans- 
feror
  
  Subject to this Ordinance, whenever any business is transferred, 
with
  ithout the goodwill thereof, the transferee shall,
notwithstanding any
  ement to the contrary, become liable for all the 
debts  and
  gations, including liability for tax charged or chargeable 
under the
  nd Revenue Ordinance (Cap. 112), arising out of the carrying on
of the
  ness by the transferor.
  Notwithstanding subsection (1), where a part of a 
business is
  sferred (other than the goodwill thereof) and in any
proceedings--
  the transferee would, but for this subsection, be adjudged 
liable
  r this Ordinance for any debts and obligations arising out 
of the
  ying on of the business by the transferor; and
  it is shown to the satisfaction of the court hearing the 
proceedings
  --
  the transferee purchased such part of the business in good faith 
and
  value; and
  at the date of transfer of such part of the business, the 
transferee
  no knowledge (whether actual, constructive or imputed)
  what he was acquiring formed part of a business,
  transferee shall not be liable under this Ordinance for the debts 
and
  gations arising out of the carrying on of the business 
by the
  sferor.
 4. Circumstances in which the transferee's liability ceases
  
  A transferee shall not become liable under section 3 if a 
notice of
  sfer has been given not more than 4 months, and not less than 1
month,
  re the date of transfer and has become complete at the 
date of
  sfer.
  Where a notice of transfer has been given but the notice 
has not
  me complete at the date of transfer, the liability of the 
transferee
  r section 3 shall cease with effect from the date on which the 
notice
  ransfer becomes complete.
  Where a notice of transfer has not been given before or at the
date of
  sfer, the liability of the transferee under section 3 shall cease
with
  ct from the date on which a notice of transfer, which is given 
after
  date of transfer, becomes complete.
  A notice of transfer shall, subject to subsections (5) and (6),
become
  lete upon the expiration of 1 month after the date of 
the last
  ication of the notice in accordance with section 5.
  Subject to subsection (6), in the case of a notice of 
transfer
  rred to--
  in subsection (1), if proceedings are instituted 
against  the
  sferor in respect of any liability of the transferor arising 
before
  notice has become complete and out of the carrying on 
of his
  ness; or
  in subsection (2) or (3), if proceedings are instituted 
against the
  sferee in respect of any liability of the transferee under 
section 3
  ing before such notice becomes complete,
  notice of transfer shall (for the purposes of such proceedings 
only)
  eemed incomplete pending the final determination of such 
proceedings,
  uding all possible appeals, and pending the expiration of all 
periods
  ng which such appeals may be brought.
  Where proceedings are instituted, a notice of transfer shall 
not be
  ed incomplete under subsection (5) unless within 1 month 
of the
  eedings being instituted--
  they are served on the transferor or transferee, as the case may 
be;
  
  written notice that they have been instituted is sent by 
registered
  to the last known address of such transferor or transferee.
 5. Contents of notice of transfer and manner of giving notice
  
  Except in the case of a transfer by way of sale under or pursuant
to a
  ge, a notice of transfer shall contain the following
particulars--
  the full name and address of the transferor;
  the nature of the business and the name or style under which, and 
the
  address at which, it has been carried on during the period 
of 6
  hs immediately preceding the date of transfer;
  the date of transfer;
  the full name and the residential and business addresses 
of the
  sferee;
  if the transferee--
  intends to carry on or is carrying on the business, the full 
address
  e, and the name and style under which, he is carrying it on or
intends
  arry it on; or
  is not carrying on the business and does not intend to carry it
on, a
  ement to that effect; and
  a statement that at the expiration of 1 month after the date of 
the
  publication of the notice pursuant to subsection (3), the 
liability
  he transferee for all the debts and obligations arising out 
of the
  ying on of the business by the transferor shall cease by 
virtue of
  Ordinance unless proceedings are instituted prior to such
expiration.
  In the case of a transfer by way of sale under or pursuant 
to a
  ge, a notice of transfer shall contain the following
particulars--
  the nature of the business, and the name or style under which,
and the
  address at which, it has been carried on during the period 
of 3
  hs immediately preceding the date of transfer;
  the full name and address of the person whose business has been,
or is
  nded to be, transferred by way of sale under or pursuant 
to the
  ge;
  details of the charge under or pursuant to which the transfer by 
way
  ale has been or is to be made, sufficient to enable any 
document
  ting or evidencing the charge to be readily identified and, 
without
  ting the generality of the foregoing, such details shall
include--
  the date when the charge was made, given, executed or 
came into
  tence;
  the consideration for which the charge was executed, made or 
given
  if there was no such consideration, the circumstances in which
it came
  existence;
  ) in the case of a registered charge, the date of the registration 
of
  charge, the title of any enactment under which it was registered 
and
  number or other means of identifying the charge assigned to it 
upon
  stration;
  the date of transfer; and
  the amount of money, payment of which has been secured by the 
charge
  which was owing--
  at the date of the publication of the notice of transfer; or
  if the transfer has already taken effect, at the date of the
transfer
  aking effect.
  Every notice of transfer shall be signed--
  by both the transferor and the transferee, in the case of a 
transfer
  hich subsection (1) applies; or
  by the charge-holder and the transferee, in the case of a transfer 
to
  h subsection (2) applies,
  shall be given by publication in--
  the Gazette;
  any 2 of such Chinese language newspapers circulating in Hong Kong
as
  be approved for the purpose by the Chief Secretary; and (Amended
L. N.
  f 1985; L. N. 242 of 1989)
  ) 1 English language newspaper circulating in Hong Kong which has
been
  pproved.
 6. Right of transferee to indemnity
  
  The transferee shall be entitled to be indemnified--
  by the transferor, except in the case of a transfer by way of 
sale
  r or pursuant to a charge; or
  by the charge-holder, if the transfer is by way of sale 
under or
  uant to a charge,
  all amounts for which the transferee is made liable 
under this
  nance and for which he would not otherwise be liable.
  The amount of such an indemnity may be recovered by civil 
proceedings
  debt or liquidated demand.
 7. Liability of parties not affected
  
  ing in this Ordinance shall relieve or be deemed to 
relieve a
  sferor or transferee, or any person who sells a business 
under or
  uant to a charge, from any liability to which he would 
otherwise be
  ect.
 8. Limitation of liability of transferee
  
  A transferee who in good faith and without preference has 
paid in
  harge or partial discharge of any liability for which he became
liable
  r this Ordinance, and for which he would not otherwise 
have been
  le, an amount which is equal to the value of the business acquired 
by
  at the date on which the transfer took effect, shall not be 
liable
  her under this Ordinance.
  The value of a business acquired by a transferee at the date on 
which
  transfer takes effect shall, until the contrary is proved, be
presumed
  e an amount equal to the amount paid or agreed to be paid (whether 
in
  s of money or by means of any other consideration) for the
acquisition
  he business.
 9. Limitation of time for institution of proceedings
  
  ect to section 6, no action shall be instituted to recover any 
debt
  or to enforce any obligation against any person liable therefor
under
  Ordinance, and for which he would not otherwise have been 
liable,
  than 1 year after the date on which the transfer in respect of 
which
  liability arose took effect.
 10. Saving
  
  Ordinance shall not apply to any transferee where the transfer
  ffected--
  by the Official Receiver or a trustee in bankruptcy;
  by the liquidator of a company in liquidation other than 
voluntary
  idation;
  by the Financial Secretary Incorporated; (Amended L. N. 369 of
1989)
  by the Director of Education Incorporated;
  by the Director of Social Welfare Incorporated;
  by a person selling under or pursuant to a charge which has 
been
  stered for not less than 1 year at the date when the transfer 
takes
  ct;
  pursuant to any order or direction of any court;
  by an executor or administrator; or
  by operation of law.
 11. Repeal and saving
  
  The Fraudulent Transfers of Businesses Ordinance (Cap. 49, 1964 
Ed.)
  epealed.
  Notwithstanding subsection (1), the Fraudulent Transfers of
Businesses
  nance (Cap. 49, 1964 Ed. ) shall continue to apply with respect 
to a
  sfer--
  which took effect; and
  in respect of which notice was given under section 3 
of that
  nance, before the coming into operation of this Ordinance, as if 
this
  nance had not been passed.


中华人民共和国和安道尔公国建立外交关系的联合公报

中国 安道尔公国


中华人民共和国和安道尔公国建立外交关系的联合公报


(签订日期1994年6月29日)
  中华人民共和国政府和安道尔公国政府决定自一九九四年六月二十九日起建立两国间大使级外交关系。
  两国政府同意,在相互尊重主权和领土完整、互不侵犯、互不干涉内政、平等互利、和平共处的原则基础上,发展两国之间的友好合作关系。
  安道尔公国政府承认中华人民共和国政府是中国的唯一合法政府、台湾是中国领土不可分割的一部分。
  两国政府同意,在互惠的基础上,根据国际惯例,相互为对方在其外交代表履行职务方面提供一切必要的协助。
  本公报于一九九四年六月二十九日在安道尔城签署,一式两份,每份用中文、加泰罗尼亚文和西文写成,三种文本同等作准。

  中华人民共和国驻
  西班牙特命全权大使          安道尔公国外交部部长
     宋国清               马克·维拉
    (签字)               (签字)